Thelansis

 Yellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease caused by the flavivirus, closely related to the viruses that cause West Nile, St. Louis, and Japanese encephalitis. Tree-hole breeding mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti and Haemagogous species, primarily transmit it. The transmission of the virus occurs in three distinct cycles: jungle, intermediate, and urban. The incubation period is typically 3 to 6 days, and once contracted, the virus quickly spreads to multiple organs in the body, with the liver and kidneys being the most affected. Symptoms include jaundice, acute renal failure, black vomit, cerebral edema, and encephalopathy. There is no specific treatment for yellow fever, but severe cases require aggressive supportive care and hydration. The differential diagnosis for yellow fever includes a variety of other infectious diseases, such as viral hemorrhagic fevers, viral hepatitis, and malaria. Most cases of yellow fever are subclinical or mildly symptomatic, with an excellent p

 Rubella virus belongs to the Matonaviridae family, which includes only one genus, Rubivirus. Rubella or German measles is a mild viral infection that affects children and non-immune young adults. It is characterized by low-grade fever, malaise, and swelling of lymph nodes, followed by a brief rash. Rubella is a self-limiting and benign infection in nonpregnant people. However, maternal rubella infection, especially during the first ten weeks of gestation, can result in miscarriage, fetal death, or severe congenital disabilities, collectively known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Postnatal rubella infection is generally mild and resolves independently with a good prognosis. However, infants with congenital rubella syndrome may have a poorer prognosis, depending on the severity and number of organs affected. Infants with thrombocytopenia, hepatosplenomegaly, interstitial pneumonia, and pulmonary hypertension are at higher mortality risk. There's no specific treatment for rubel

 Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma (PCNSL) is an aggressive type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma localized to the CNS, including the brain, spine, CSF, and eyes. Most PCNSL cases are diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, while Burkitt, low-grade, or T-cell lymphomas are rare. Neurological symptoms usually appear gradually over several weeks, including changes in mental status, behavioral changes, focal neurologic deficits, and symptoms of increased intracranial pressure, such as headaches, nausea, vomiting, papilledema, and seizures, depending on the site of CNS involvement. To determine the severity of the disease, the International PCNSL Collaborative Group suggests conducting baseline staging, which includes magnetic resonance imaging of the brain (and spine if spinal symptoms are present), ophthalmologic evaluation, and CSF evaluation. Patients with primary refractory or relapsed PCNSL face a grim prognosis, with a median survival rate of only two months without additional treatment. PCNSL

 Poliomyelitis, commonly known as polio, is a viral illness caused by one of three related poliovirus types. It is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route and can affect individuals of all ages, but it is most severe in children under 5 years. The virus infects the intestines and can invade the nervous system, leading to various outcomes ranging from asymptomatic infection to acute flaccid paralysis. The incubation period for polio is typically 7 to 10 days but can range from 4 to 35 days. In some cases, initial symptoms such as fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, neck stiffness, and limb pain may appear, which usually resolve within 2 to 10 days. However, in some cases, paralysis can occur, often resulting in permanent damage to the limbs and severe cases, leading to death by immobilization of the breathing muscles. The diagnosis of polio is confirmed through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis of samples collected from stool, throat, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid. The

 Oligodendroglioma (OG) is a rare type of glial tumor primarily found in the white matter of the cerebral hemisphere, especially in the supratentorial region. This tumor is characterized by a highly cellular lesion that diffusely infiltrates the periphery and consists of evenly-spaced monomorphic cells with the oligodendroglial phenotype. The cells are uniformly round to oval with round nuclei, delicate chromatin and small nucleoli. The most common clinical presentation is seizures. There are three types of OG: Grade 2 oligodendroglioma (low grade), Grade 2 oligoastrocytoma (low grade), Grade 3 anaplastic oligodendroglioma (high grade), and Grade 3 anaplastic oligoastrocytoma (high grade). The cause of OG is still unknown, but certain risk factors such as age, exposure to ionizing radiation, and family history of glioma can increase the risk of developing this tumor. Treatment of OG is multifactorial and includes surgical, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy methods. Low-grade OG (WHO

 Medullary Thyroid Cancer (MTC) originates from the parafollicular cells, also known as C cells, of the thyroid gland, which produces calcitonin. This tumor is derived from neural crest cells and is characterized by elevated calcitonin levels. About 75-80% of medullary thyroid cancers are sporadic, while the remaining cases are familial and occur in multiple endocrine neoplasias (MEN) 2A, MEN 2B, and familial medullary thyroid cancer (FMTC). The development of MTC can be attributed to RET mutations in the neural crest tissue of the thyroid gland. Germline mutations are associated with MEN2 and FMTC medullary thyroid cancers, while 40-50% of sporadic medullary thyroid cancers have acquired RET mutations. Medullary thyroid cancer associated with multiple MEN syndromes is often multicentric and bilateral, whereas sporadic medullary thyroid cancer is usually unilateral. These tumors typically involve the upper portions of both lobes of the thyroid gland since C cells are predominantly loca

Kennedy's disease, called bulbospinal muscular atrophy (BSMA), is a rare genetic disorder following an X-linked recessive inheritance pattern characterized by the degeneration of motor neurons leading to muscle wasting in the proximal and bulbar regions. BSMA is caused by an unstable expansion of a CAG triplet repeat (40-62 repeats) in exon 1 of the androgen receptor (AR) gene located on chromosome Xq11-12. The onset of symptoms typically occurs between the ages of 30 and 60 years, and initial clinical manifestations may include tremors, muscle cramps, twitching, fatigue, and slurred speech. With disease progression, patients may experience weakness and wasting of the limb and bulbar muscles, resulting in dysarthria, dysphonia, hanging jaw, tongue wasting, chewing difficulty, and impaired mobility. The disease may be misdiagnosed initially as hereditary spastic paraplegia, spinocerebellar ataxia, other motor neuron diseases, myopathies, neuropathies, or cervical spondylosis. The pr

B virus, also known as Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1, is an alphaherpesvirus commonly found in macaque monkeys. It is the only non-human primate herpesvirus known to be highly pathogenic to humans and can cause severe illness if left untreated. Human infection can occur through a breach of the skin or mucosal defences, exposure to contaminated fomites, or human-to-human transmission. The nasal mucosa is less ideal for virus replication than the lung. The permissiveness of infection depends on the initial site of virus exposure and the dose of virus introduced. Symptoms of B virus infection in humans can range from a flu-like illness to neurological deterioration and can appear days to years after exposure. The array of symptoms may depend on the dose and route of inoculation and can culminate in respiratory failure. Clinical progression is associated with consistent symptoms, including flu-like illness, lymphadenitis, fever, headache, vomiting, myalgia, cramping, and urinary retention w

Cerebellar degeneration is characterized by the deterioration of neurons in the cerebellum, a brain area responsible for controlling muscle coordination and balance. The condition can also affect other parts of the central nervous system, such as the spinal cord, cerebral cortex, and brain stem. Its symptoms may include uncoordinated walking, tremors, uncoordinated movements of the arms and legs, slow and slurred speech, and nystagmus. Cerebellar degeneration causes can vary, including inherited gene changes, chronic alcohol abuse, and paraneoplastic disorders. There isn’t a cure for cerebellar degeneration. Treatment usually depends on the underlying cause of your brain dysfunction. ·        The prevalence of cerebellar degeneration is approximately 20 per 100,000. Thelansis’s “Cerebellar Degeneration Market Outlook, Epidemiology, Competitive Landscape, and Market Forecast Report – 2021 To 2032" covers disease overview, epidemiology, drug utilization, prescription share analysis,

 Carcinosarcomas, also known as malignant mixed Müllerian tumors (MMMT), are uncommon malignancies that demonstrate both epithelial (carcinomatous) and mesenchymal (sarcomatous) differentiation. While most carcinosarcomas arise in the uterus, they can also develop in the ovaries, fallopian tubes, cervix, and, very rarely, the female peritoneum. These tumors predominantly affect older postmenopausal individuals, with 90% of cases occurring in those over 50 years of age. MMMTs are classified as high-grade endometrial carcinomas and are characterized by both a carcinomatous and a sarcomatous component. Risk factors for MMMT include nulliparity, obesity, advanced age, exposure to exogenous estrogens, pelvic irradiation, and long-term use of tamoxifen. MMMTs are highly aggressive tumors with a poor prognosis, comprising only 1–2% of uterine neoplasms and responsible for 15% of deaths from uterine malignancy. MMMT is characterized by a carcinomatous and a sarcomatous component, and the sarco

 Carcinoid tumor are a rare form of neoplastic disease arising from primitive stem cells in the gut wall, particularly in the appendix. They can also be found in other organs, such as the lungs, liver, pancreas, and kidneys. These tumors are of neuroendocrine origin and can secrete humoral factors, including polypeptides, vasoactive amines, and prostaglandins, resulting in a hormonal syndrome. The symptoms of this hormonal syndrome include increased bowel movements, diarrhea, vasoactive flushes (especially of the face), hypotension, tachycardia, venous telangiectasia, dyspnea, and bronchospasms. In addition, the long-term effects of this condition may lead to fibrotic changes in the mesentery, retroperitoneum, and cardiac valves. Carcinoid tumors are classified based on location in the primitive gut that gives rise to the tumor, including foregut, midgut, and hindgut carcinoid tumors. These tumors are further divided into well-differentiated (low and intermediate grade) and poorly diff

 Beta-thalassemia (BT) is a genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency (Beta+) or absence (Beta0) of the beta-globin chains of hemoglobin (Hb). There are three main types of BT: BT-minor, BT-major, and BT-intermedia. BT-minor is the heterozygous form and is generally asymptomatic. At the same time, BT-major is the homozygous form that causes splenomegaly, microcytic and hypochromic anemia, and requires systematic transfusions to maintain Hb levels above 90-100 g/L. Long-term transfusion results in iron overload, which can cause significant morbidity and hamper the vital prognosis. BT-intermedia is less severe than BT-major and diagnosed later in life, and patients may or may not require occasional transfusions. Diagnosis of BT relies on analyzing Hb by electrophoresis or HPLC. Treatment options for BT include a combination of regular transfusions and iron chelation therapy, which has led to increased survival during the last 40 years. The prognosis depends on the severity of the co

 Aplastic anemia is a syndrome characterized by chronic primary hematopoietic failure due to injury resulting in reduced or absent hematopoietic precursors in the bone marrow, leading to pancytopenia. The onset occurs over weeks or months after exposure to a toxic agent, although it can occasionally be acute. Its symptoms include weakness, easy fatigability, ecchymosis, petechiae, and bleeding from the gums into the conjunctivae. Fanconi anemia is the most prevalent hereditary cause, presenting in the late first decade with pancytopenia, organ hypoplasia, and bone defects such as abnormal radii, absent thumbs, and short stature. The most frequent etiology is idiopathic, accounting for 65% of cases. Seronegative hepatitis accounts for 5-10% of cases, while telomerase defects are found in 5-10% of adult-onset aplastic anemia. Patients who undergo bone marrow transplantation from a suitable donor have a five-year survival rate of over 75%. Most untreated patients die within one year due t

 Aortic valve stenosis is the most common type of valvular heart disease, characterized by narrowing the aortic valve orifice between the aorta and left ventricle. The classic triad of symptoms associated with aortic stenosis includes angina pectoris, dyspnea, and syncope, but any clinical features of left-sided heart failure may also be present. In adults, degenerative calcification is the most common cause of aortic stenosis, often associated with the congenital bicuspid aortic valve, a chronic deterioration of the valve leaflets, or prior rheumatic heart disease affecting the aortic valve. It is classified based on its severity as mild, moderate, severe, or critical. Typically, this condition arises from congenital disabilities, including a narrow aortic valve, a bicuspid aortic valve, fused valve leaflets, or unusually thick valve leaflets that hinder complete opening. Complications of aortic valve stenosis include congestive heart failure, sudden cardiac death due to arrhythmia, c

 Anaplastic astrocytoma is a rare, aggressive type of brain tumor characterized by an abundance of abnormal astrocytes and high numbers of cells dividing. It is often associated with diffuse infiltration of the surrounding tissue, considerable swelling, and compression of adjacent brain tissue. It typically occurs in the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord. It constitutes 4% of all malignant central nervous system tumors and 10% of all gliomas. Depending on where the tumor is located, patients may present with symptoms such as headaches, vomiting, seizures, and changes in behavior or neurological function. An anaplastic astrocytoma can be classified further into different subtypes based on genetic characteristics, including mutations in the IDH1 or IDH2 genes. These genetic differences can affect treatment options and prognosis, with varying systems of classification based on the presence or absence of these mutations. ·        The 5-year survival rate

 Acute myeloblastic leukemia (AML) is a type of cancer that affects the bone marrow and involves the malignant growth of myeloid precursors of white blood cells. Among pediatric cases of AML, acute myelomonocytic leukemia (AML-M4) is a frequently occurring subtype. The symptoms of AML can be non-specific and include weakness, paleness, fever, lightheadedness, and respiratory problems. However, more specific indicators of the disease include bleeding or bruising, coagulation disorders (DIC), neurological symptoms, and gingival hyperplasia. The exact cause of acute myelomonocytic leukemia AMML) is unknown. AMML represents 5-10% of all cases of AML. AMML occurs in all age groups but is a disease of older individuals (over 60 years). The median age of patients with AMML is 50 years. AMML is slightly more common in males, with a male-to-female ratio of 1.4. One chromosomal abnormality commonly seen in cases of AML-M4 is the inv(16) mutation. Children with AML-M4 who have the inv(16) mutatio

Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL) is a blood cancer that affects B or T lymphoblasts, characterized by the uncontrolled proliferation of immature and abnormal lymphocytes and their precursors. This leads to replacing bone marrow elements and other lymphoid organs, resulting in typical symptoms of anemia, thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia. Patients may also experience B-symptoms such as fever, night sweats, and unintentional weight loss. The exact cause of ALL is unknown. Risk factor includes exposure to environments such as benzene, ionizing radiation, or previous chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Somatic polymorphic variants of genes (ARD5B, IKZF1, and CDKN2A) increased ALL risk. Rare germline gene mutations such as PAX5, ETV6, and p53 can also predispose individuals to leukemia. The prognosis for ALL is generally poor, with only around 30% of adults being curable. Poor prognostic factors include age over 60, abnormal cytogenetics, failure to achieve remission within four weeks, and many p

 Pertussis (commonly known as whooping cough), a respiratory infection, is caused by the gram-negative coccobacillus Bordetella pertussis and Bordetella parapertussis. The infection is spread through airborne droplets and is highly contagious, with a tendency to affect 100% of non-immune household contacts. Protection from vaccination may wane to 50% within 12 years of completion, and immunocompromised individuals may also contract Bordetella bronchiseptica, commonly known as "kennel cough." Risk factors for acquiring pertussis include pregnancy, epidemic exposure, lack of immunization, and close contact with an infected individual. The organism adheres to ciliated respiratory epithelial cells, causing local inflammatory changes in the mucosal lining and releasing toxins that act locally and systemically. Pertussis presents similarly to other respiratory infections but has a distinct progression through three phases and a persistent cough without fever. Infants and older adul

 Urethral cancer is a rare malignancy that affects the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body. Its presentation varies between men and women due to differences in anatomy and physiology. The etiology is not well understood, but it is known that patients with a history of bladder cancer have an increased risk. Three main types of urethral carcinomas are identified based on the type of cells in which they begin to grow: squamous cell carcinoma, transitional cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma. Chronic inflammation, infection, or irritation of the urethra is often present before the development of UC. Rapid turnover of the urethral mucosal cells can also predispose to dysplasia and neoplasia. The diagnosis of urethral cancer requires a high level of suspicion. Usually, it involves a combination of history and physical examination, laboratory evaluation, direct visualization, tissue diagnosis, and imaging to assess the local and systemic extent of